From the depths of the sea to the tops of mountains, animals challenge our expectations with behaviors that leave us speechless. But behind every surprising action lies a story of evolution, learning, and necessity.
This article will cover some of these behaviors, trying to reveal their scientific roots in clear and passionate language to bring us closer to a deeper understanding of our planet mates.
Nonhuman intelligence: a mosaic of specialized abilities
For a long time, intelligence was considered a human prerogative, with animals relegated to the role of instinctive creatures.
But scientific research has overturned this vision, revealing a panorama of surprising cognitive abilities in the animal world.
There is no “one intelligence”; rather, each species develops specific abilities that adapt to its environment and lifestyle.
- Birds that plan the future: Western jays ( Aphelocoma californica ) are not only skilled at hiding food, but also plan their future actions, without being guided by their current state of motivation. These birds stash food for future use and take precautions to prevent others from stealing their supplies. Crows ( Raven’s heart ) also appear to plan for the future, saving tools for later use and tokens for bartering. Corvidi have cognitive abilities that rival those of non-human primates, for example in tasks involving object permanence, delayed gratification, causal reasoning and the ability to mentally travel through time.
- Pisces with numerical and social skills: Fish also demonstrate unexpected cognitive abilities. Cichlids are able to use transitive inference (if A > B and B > C, then A > C). Some species of fish that move in schools can keep track of the size of the school. Some fish species decide who to learn from and where to find food sources. And it turned out that some fish cooperate in the hunt.
- Insects with attentional and cognitive abilities: Insects also demonstrate surprising intelligence. Some studies show that insects are capable of selective attention. Insects demonstrate astonishing learning and cognitive abilities, too.
These examples demonstrate that intelligence is not an exclusive trait of humans but a mosaic of abilities that manifests in different ways in the animal world. Furthermore, many animals, such as dogs, can use human communicative signals such as pointing, which challenges assumptions of cognitive competence in other animals.
Beyond imitation
For a long time, we believed that social learning, especially imitation, was the main driver of developing complex animal behaviors. However, recent studies highlight the crucial role of individual learning and the capacity for innovation. Through trial and error, many animals can develop new behaviors, including tool use.
- Monkeys using tools spontaneously: Vervet monkeys have been observed using sticks to extract honey from hives. Even Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) in captivity use scratching tools, as weapons or as ladders to reach objects. The chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), even without the example of a mother, they are capable of making sponges of leaves to absorb water. The macaques were observed making and using tools to extract syrup from a machine. All this suggests that tool use is an ability that may be innate, at least in part.
- Other animals that use tools: Dingos (Canis dingo) have been observed moving objects in his enclosure to reach food. Also bears they are able to manipulate objects to reach food. Elephants (Loxodonta africana, the largest elephant) are able to use sticks to reach food, scratch and inspect glands. Octopuses are able to use coconut shells for protection. Sea otters (Enhydra black otter) develop the same behavior of using stones to break their shells as those observed in adult wild otters.
These examples challenge the idea that social learning is the sole driver of the development of complex behaviors and highlight the capacity for innovation and problem-solving of many animal species.
Social learning can regulate the frequency of a behavior, but the forms of the behaviors themselves are often the result of individual learning.
Animal emotions
Emotions have long been considered a human exclusive, but science is revealing that animals experience a wide range of emotional states.
These states influence their behavior and cognitive processes.
A test called the “cognitive bias test” has become an important tool for measuring animals’ emotional states, especially negative emotional states, where animals that are in a negative emotional state tend to interpret ambiguous stimuli pessimistically.
Understanding animal emotions is crucial to animal welfare science, neuroscience, and biomedicine. It is important to fully understand their actions, because emotional states influence their actions and choices.
Collective behavior: harmony and self-organization
Social animals often exhibit collective behaviors that appear to emerge from a “group mind”. In reality, these behaviors are the result of simple rules that each individual follows.
Bird formations, such as those of starlings, are a spectacular example of self-organization. Each bird follows a few simple rules: line up with its neighbors, keep a certain distance, and move in the same direction. These simple rules produce complex formations that move harmoniously.
Collective behaviors are observed in a variety of species, from fish to mammals. Animal aggregation is an example of self-organization emerging in the absence of centralized control. This behavior is useful for survival, for example for defense from predators, or for searching for food.
These collective behaviors demonstrate how interactions between individuals can produce complex behaviors at the group level. Research in this field seeks to understand both theoretical models and empirical observations.
Beyond observable behavior
Awareness and consciousness are difficult concepts to define and study, both in humans and animals. However, neuroscientific research is making progress in identifying the neural correlates of these states.
- The role of the brain: It is believed that some areas of the brain, such as the brainstem, play a fundamental role in the creation of conscious contents and primordial emotions. The ability to distinguish self-generated sensations from those coming from outside is important for phenomenal consciousness.
- Brain activity: Studies of brain activity, such as electroencephalography (EEG), have shown that certain types of brain waves, such as gamma waves, are associated with awareness of the perception of stimuli. These studies demonstrate that awareness and consciousness can also be studied in animals.
- Energy costs: Awareness and consciousness come at a high energetic cost. This suggests that they only evolved when the benefits outweighed the costs. Animal studies should take this energetic aspect into account, as a factor of natural selection.
Research into awareness and consciousness in animals is a rapidly evolving field, helping us understand the nature of the mind and question our unique position in the world.
A biocentric approach: looking at animals with their eyes
A recurring theme in animal behavior research is the need to adopt a biocentric approach, which takes into account the ecology and lifestyle of each species. Instead of comparing animals to human standards, we should focus on their unique abilities and adaptation strategies.
Ecologically valid tests: Many traditional tests for measuring the cognitive abilities of animals are not ecologically valid. For example, asking a chimpanzee to follow a human pointing gesture to find hidden food is not relevant to its natural experience. Instead, we should use situations and tasks that have meaning for the species in question.
The importance of perception: We must also take each species’ sensory and perceptual limitations into account when designing experiments. For example, an animal that relies on smell may not be able to understand a task that relies on vision.
Taking a biocentric approach allows us to appreciate the diversity of the animal world and understand their minds more fully and accurately. We must look at animals through their eyes, not ours, to truly understand their abilities and behaviors.
Conclusions
The animal world continues to surprise us with unexpected and fascinating behaviors.
Scientific research is helping us unravel the basis of these actions, revealing the complexity and diversity of animal minds. There is no “single intelligence”, but a mosaic of abilities that have evolved to respond to environmental challenges.
Furthermore, it is important to remember that not only social learning, but also individual learning and innovation play a fundamental role in animals’ ability to adapt. Emotions influence their behavior and decisions.
Collective behaviors emerge from simple rules that lead to self-organization. Awareness and consciousness, although difficult to study, are crucial aspects of animal life. It is necessary to adopt a biocentric approach to appreciate the unique capabilities of each species.
This journey through the surprising behaviors of animals is not only a scientific exploration, but also an invitation to wonder and compassion. The more we understand our planetmates, the more we can appreciate the richness and beauty of life on Earth.
We hope that this article has stimulated your curiosity and ignited in you a desire to deepen your knowledge of the animal world.
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Bibliographic references
Gomez-Marin A, Ghazanfar AA. The Life of Behavior. Neuron. 2019 Oct 9;104(1):25-36. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.09.017. PMID: 31600513; PMCID: PMC6873815.
Bandini, E., & Tennie, C. (2020). Exploring the role of individual learning in animal tool-use. PeerJ, 8, e9877. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9877
Ehret G, Romand R. Awareness and consciousness in humans and animals – neural and behavioral correlates in an evolutionary perspective. Front Syst Neurosci. 2022 Jul 14;16:941534. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2022.941534. PMID: 35910003; PMCID: PMC9331465.
